%0 Generic %D Working Paper %T Enhancing the Efficacy of Teacher Incentives through Framing: A Field Experiment %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %A Steven D. Levitt %A John List %A Sally Sadoff %X

In a field experiment, we provide financial incentives to teachers framed either as gains, received at the end of the year, or as losses, in which teachers receive upfront bonuses that must be paid back if their students do not improve sufficiently. Pooling two waves of the experiment, loss-framed incentives improve math achievement by an estimated 0.124 standard deviations (σ) with large effects in the first wave and no effects in the second wave. Effects for gain framed incentives are smaller and not statistically significant, approximately 0.051σ. We find suggestive evidence that effects on teacher value added persist post-treatment.

%G eng %0 Generic %D Working Paper %T Complementary Bias: A Model of Two-Sided Statistical Discrimination %A Ashley C. Craig %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %X We introduce a model of two-sided statistical discrimination in which worker and firm beliefs are complementary. Firms try to infer whether workers have made investments required for them to be productive, and simultaneously, workers try to deduce whether firms have made investments necessary for them to thrive. When multiple equilibria exist, group differences are sustained by both sides of the interaction – workers and firms. Strategic complementarity complicates both empirical analysis designed to detect discrimination and policy meant to alleviate it. Affirmative action is much less effective than in traditional statistical discrimination models. More generally, we demonstrate the futility of policies that are designed to correct gender and racial disparities but do not address both sides of the coordination problem. We propose a two-sided version of “investment insurance” – a policy in which the government (after observing a noisy version of the employer’s signal) offers to hire any worker who it believes to be qualified and whom the employers does not offer a job – and show that it (weakly) dominates any alternative. The paper concludes by proposing a way to identify statistical discrimination by employers when beliefs are complements. %G eng %U https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/ashley-craig/files/twosided.pdf %0 Generic %D Working Paper %T Management and Student Achievement: Evidence from a Randomized Field Experiment %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %X

This study examines the impact on student achievement of implementing management training for principals in traditional public schools in Houston, Texas, using a school-level randomized field experiment. Across two years, principals were provided 300 hours of training on lesson planning, data-driven instruction, and teacher observation and coaching. The findings show that offering management training to principals significantly increases student achievement in all subjects in year one and has an insignificant effect in year two. We argue that the results in year two are driven by principal turnover, coupled with the cumulative nature of the training. Schools with principals who are predicted to remain in their positions for both years of the experiment demonstrate large treatment effects in both years – particularly those with principals who are also predicted to implement the training with high fidelity – while those with principals that are predicted to leave have statistically insignificant effects in each year of treatment. 

%G eng %0 Generic %D Working Paper %T Charter Schools and Labor Market Outcomes %A Will Dobbie %A Roland G. Fryer %X

We estimate the impact of charter schools on early-life labor market outcomes using administrative data from Texas. We find that, at the mean, charter schools have no impact on test scores and a negative impact on earnings. No Excuses charter schools increase test scores and four-year college enrollment, but have a small and statistically insigni ficant impact on earnings, while other types of charter schools decrease test scores, four-year college enrollment, and earnings. Moving to school-level estimates, we find that charter schools that decrease test scores
also tend to decrease earnings, while charter schools that increase test scores have no discernible impact on earnings. In contrast, high school graduation e ffects are predictive of earnings eff ects throughout the distribution of school quality. The paper concludes with a speculative discussion of what might explain our set of facts.

%8 2016 %G eng %0 Generic %D Working Paper %T Parental Incentives and Early Childhood Achievement: A Field Experiment in Chicago Heights %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %A Steven D. Levitt %A List, John A. %X

This article describes a randomized field experiment in which parents were provided financial incentives to engage in behaviors designed to increase early childhood cognitive and executive function skills through a parent academy. Parents were rewarded for attendance at early childhood sessions, completing homework assignments with their children, and for their child’s demonstration of mastery on interim assessments. This intervention had large and statistically significant positive impacts on both cognitive and non-cognitive test scores of Hispanics and Whites, but no impact on Blacks. These differential outcomes across races are not attributable to differences in observable characteristics (e.g. family size, mother’s age, mother’s education) or to the intensity of engagement with the program. Children with above median (pre-treatment) non cognitive scores accrue the most benefits from treatment.

%G eng %0 Generic %D Working Paper %T Vertical versus Horizontal Incentives in Education: Evidence from Randomized Trials %A Roland Fryer %A Tanaya Devi %A Richard T. Holden %X

This paper describes randomized field experiments in eighty-four urban public schools in two cities designed to understand the impact of aligned incentives on student achievement. In Washington DC, incentives were “horizontal” – provided to one agent (students) for various inputs in the education production function (i.e. attendance, behavior, interim assessments,homework, and uniforms). In Houston, TX, incentives were “vertical” – provided to multiple agents (parents, teachers, and students) for a single input (math objectives). On outcomes for which we provided direct incentives, there were large and statistically significant effects from both treatments. Horizontal incentives led to increases in math and reading test scores. Vertical incentives increased math achievement, but resulted in decreased reading, science, and social studies test scores. We argue that the data is consistent with agents perceiving academic achievement in various subjects as substitutes, not complements, in education production.

%G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Labor Economics %D Forthcoming %T Charter Schools and Labor Market Outcomes %A Will Dobbie %A Roland G. Fryer %X

We estimate the impact of charter schools on early-life labor market outcomes using admin- istrative data from Texas. We find that, at the mean, charter schools have no impact on test scores and a negative impact on earnings. No Excuses charter schools increase test scores and four-year college enrollment, but, due to imprecision, have a statistically insignificant impact on earnings – though the coefficient is almost identical to what one would expect given the correla- tion between test scores and wages. Other types of charter schools decrease test scores, four-year college enrollment, and earnings, and, surprisingly, the decrease in wages is more negative than one would anticipate. Using school-level estimates, we find that charter schools that decrease average test scores also tend to decrease earnings, while charter schools that increase average test scores have no discernible impact on earnings. In contrast, high school graduation effects and four-year college enrollment are predictive of earnings effects throughout the distribution of school quality. The paper concludes with a speculative discussion of what might explain our set of facts.

%B Journal of Labor Economics %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Labor Economics %D Forthcoming %T High-Dosage Tutoring and Reading Achievement: Evidence from New York City∗ %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %A Meghan Howard-Noveck %X

This study examines the impact on student achievement of high-dosage reading tutoring for middle school students in New York City public schools, using a school-level randomized field experiment. Across three years, schools offered at least 130 hours of 4-on-1 tutoring based on a guided reading model. We demonstrate that, at the mean, tutoring has a positive and significant effect on school attendance, a positive, but insignificant, effect on English Language Arts (ELA) state test scores and no effect on math state test scores. There is important heterogeneity by race. For black students, our treatment increased attendance by 2.0 percentage points (control mean 92.4 percent) and ELA scores by 0.09 standard deviations per year – two times larger than the effect of KIPP Charter Middle Schools on reading achievement. We argue that the increased effectiveness of tutoring for black students is best explained by the average tutor characteristics at the schools they attend.

%B Journal of Labor Economics %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of the European Economic Association %D Forthcoming %T Updating Beliefs when Evidence is Open to Interpretation: Implications for Bias and Polarization %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr %A Philipp Harms %A Matthew O. Jackson %X

We introduce a model in which agents observe signals about the state of the world, some of which are open to interpretation. Our decision makers first interpret each signal and then form a posterior on the sequence of interpreted signals. This ‘double updating’ leads to confirmation bias and can lead agents who observe the same information to polarize. We explore the model’s predictions in an on-line experiment in which individuals interpret research summaries about climate change and the death penalty. Consistent with the model, there is a significant relationship between an individual’s prior and their interpretation of the summaries; and - even more striking - over half of the subjects exhibit polarizing behavior.

%B Journal of the European Economic Association %G eng %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Review (Papers and Proceedings) %D Forthcoming %T Reconciling Results on Racial Differences in Police Shootings %A Roland G Fryer, Jr %B American Economic Review (Papers and Proceedings) %G eng %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Review %D Forthcoming %T The ‘Pupil’ Factory: Specialization and the Production of Human Capital in Schools. %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %X Starting in the 2013-2014 school year, I conducted a randomized field experiment in fortysix traditional public elementary schools in Houston, Texas designed to test the potential productivity benefits of teacher specialization in schools. Treatment schools altered their schedules to have teachers specialize in a subset of subjects in which they have demonstrated relative strength (based on value-add measures and principal observations). The average impact of encouraging schools to specialize their teachers on student achievement is -0.11 standard deviations per year on a combined index of math and reading test scores. Students enrolled in special education and those with less experienced teachers demonstrated marked negative results. I argue that the results are consistent with a model in which the benefits of specialization driven by sorting teachers into a subset of subjects based on comparative advantage is outweighed by inefficient pedagogy due to having fewer interactions with each student, though other mechanisms are possible. %B American Economic Review %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Political Economy %D Forthcoming %T An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr %X

This paper explores racial differences in police use of force. On non-lethal uses of force, blacks and Hispanics are more than fifty percent more likely to experience some form of force in interactions with police. Adding controls that account for important context and civilian behavior reduces, but cannot fully explain, these disparities. On the most extreme use of force –officer-involved shootings – we find no racial differences in either the raw data or when contextual factors are taken into account. We argue that the patterns in the data are consistent with a model in which police officers are utility maximizers, a fraction of which have a preference for discrimination, who incur relatively high expected costs of officer-involved shootings.

%B Journal of Political Economy %8 2016 %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of the European Economic Association %D Forthcoming %T Self-Selection and Comparative Advantage in Social Interactions %A Steve Cicala %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr %A Jorg L. Spenkuch %X

We propose a theory of social interactions based on self-selection and comparative advantage. In our model, students choose peer groups based on their comparative advantage within a social environment. The effect of moving a student into a different environment with higher-achieving peers depends on where in the ability distribution she falls and the shadow prices that clear the social market. We show that the model’s key prediction—an individual’s ordinal rank predicts her behavior and test scores—is borne out in one randomized controlled trial in Kenya as well as administrative data from the U.S. To test whether our selection mechanism can explain the effect of rank on outcomes, we conduct an experiment with nearly 600 public school students in Houston. The experimental results suggest that social interactions are mediated by self-selection based on comparative advantage.

%B Journal of the European Economic Association %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Mathematics of Operations Research %D Forthcoming %T Two-Armed Restless Bandits with Imperfect Information: Stochastic Control and Indexability %A Roland Fryer %A Philipp Harms %X

 

We present a two-armed bandit model of decision making under uncertainty where the expected return to investing in the "risky arm" increases when choosing that arm and decreases when choosing the "safe" arm. These dynamics are natural in applications such as human capital development, job search, and occupational choice. Using new insights from stochastic control, along with a monotonicity condition on the payo dynamics, we show that optimal strategies in our model are stopping rules that can be characterized by an index which formally coincides with Gittins' index. Our result implies the indexability of a new class of restless bandit models

 

%B Mathematics of Operations Research %G eng %0 Book Section %B Handbook of Field Experiments %D 2017 %T The Production of Human Capital in Developed Countries: Evidence from 196 Randomized Field Experiments %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %X

Randomized field experiments designed to better understand the production of human capital have increased exponentially over the past several decades. This chapter summarizes what we have learned about various partial derivatives of the human capital production function, what important partial derivatives are left to be estimated, and what – together – our collective efforts have taught us about how to produce human capital in developed countries. The chapter concludes with a back of the envelope simulation of how much of the racial wage gap in America might be accounted for if human capital policy focused on best practices gleaned from randomized field experiments.

%B Handbook of Field Experiments %I North-Holland %C Amsterdam %V 2 %P 95-322 %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Public Economics %D 2016 %T Information, Non-Financial Incentives, and Student Achievement: Evidence from a Text Messaging Experiment %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %X

This paper describes a field experiment in Oklahoma City Public Schools in which students were provided with free cellular phones and daily information about the link between human capital and future outcomes via text message in one treatment and minutes to talk and text as an incentive in a second treatment. Students’ reported beliefs about the relationship between education and outcomes were influenced by the information treatment.  However, there were no measurable changes in student effort, attendance, suspensions, or state test scores, though there is evidence that scores on college entrance exams four years later increased. The patterns in the data appear most consistent with a model in which students have present-bias or lack knowledge of the educational production function, though other explanations are possible.

%B Journal of Public Economics %V 144 %P 109-121 %G eng %0 Journal Article %J B. E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy, Advances Tier %D 2015 %T The Impact of Voluntary Youth Service on Future Outcomes: Evidence from Teach For America %A Roland G Fryer, Jr %A Will Dobbie %B B. E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy, Advances Tier %V 15 %P 1031 %8 2015 %G eng %N 3 %0 Generic %D 2015 %T Not Too Late: Improving Academic Outcomes for Disadvantaged Youth %A Phillip Cook %A Kenneth Dodge %A George Farkas %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %A Jonathan Guryan %A Jens Ludwig %A Susan Mayer %A Harold Pollack %A Laurence Steinberg %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Political Economy %D 2015 %T The Medium-Term Impacts of High-Achieving Charter Schools %A Roland G Fryer, Jr. %A Will Dobbie %B Journal of Political Economy %V 123 %P 985-1037 %8 2015 %G eng %N 5 %0 Journal Article %J Quarterly Journal of Economics (2014) %D 2014 %T Injecting Charter School Best Practices into Traditional PublicSchools:Evidence From Field Experiments* %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %B Quarterly Journal of Economics (2014) %V 129 %P 1355-1407 %G eng %N 3 %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Labor Economics (2014) %D 2014 %T The Potential of Urban Boarding Schools for the Poor: Evidence from SEED %A Roland G. Fryer %A Vilsa E. Curto %X

The SEED schools, which combine a “No Excuses” charter model with a five-day-a-week boarding program, are America’s only urban public boarding schools for the poor. We provide the first causal estimate of the impact of attending SEED schools on academic achievement, with the goal of understanding whether changing both a student’s social and educational en- vironment through boarding is an effective strategy to increase achievement among the poor. Using admission lotteries, we show that attending a SEED school increases achievement by 0.211 standard deviations in reading and 0.229 standard deviations in math, per year of attendance. We argue that the large impacts on reading are consistent with dialectical theories of language development.

%B Journal of Labor Economics (2014) %V 32 %P 65-93 %G eng %N 1 %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Journal: Applied Economics (July 2014) %D 2014 %T The Impact of Attending a School with High-Achieving Peers: Evidence from New York City Exam Schools %A Will Dobbie %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %B American Economic Journal: Applied Economics (July 2014) %V 6 %P 58-75 %G eng %N 3 %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Review (Papers and Proceedings) %D 2013 %T Achieving Escape Velocity: Neighborhood and School Interventions to Reduce Persistent Inequality %A Roland Fryer %A Lawrence Katz %B American Economic Review (Papers and Proceedings) %V 103 %P 232-237 %G eng %N 3 %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Political Economy %D 2013 %T Valuing Diversity %A R. Fryer %A G. Loury %B Journal of Political Economy %V 121 %P 747-774 %G eng %N 4 %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Law and Economics %D 2013 %T Racial Disparities in Job Finding and Offered Wages %A Roland G. Fryer, Jr. %A Pager, Devah %A Jorg L. Spenkuch %B Journal of Law and Economics %V 56 %P 633-689 %G eng %N August %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Journal: Applied Economics %D 2013 %T Getting Beneath the Veil of Effective Schools: Evidence from New York City %A Roland Fryer %A W. Dobbie %B American Economic Journal: Applied Economics %V 5 %P 28-60 %G eng %N 4 %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Review %D 2013 %T Testing for Racial Differences in the Mental Ability of Young Children %A Roland Fryer %A S. Levitt %B American Economic Review %V 103 %P 981-1005 %G eng %N 2 %0 Journal Article %J Economic Inquiry %D 2013 %T Measuring Crack Cocaine and Its Impact %A Roland G. Fryer %A Paul S. Heaton %A Steven D. Levitt %A Kevin M. Murphy %B Economic Inquiry %V 51 %P 1651-1681 %G eng %N 3 %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Labor Economics %D 2013 %T Teacher Incentives and Student Achievement: Evidence from New York City Public Schools %A Roland Fryer %B Journal of Labor Economics %V 31 %P 373-427 %8 2013 %G eng %N 2 %0 Conference Paper %B The Hamilton Project %D 2012 %T Learning from the Successes and Failures of Charter Schools %A Roland G Fryer, Jr %B The Hamilton Project %C Washington, D.C. %8 September %G eng %0 Generic %D 2012 %T Enhancing the Efficacy of Teacher Incentives through Loss Aversion: A Field Experiment %A R. Fryer %A Steven D. Levitt %A John List %A Sally Sadoff %X

Domestic attempts to use financial incentives for teachers to increase student
achievement have been ineffective. In this paper, we demonstrate that exploiting the
power of loss aversion—teachers are paid in advance and asked to give back the money if
their students do not improve sufficiently—increases math test scores between 0.201
(0.076) and 0.398 (0.129) standard deviations. This is equivalent to increasing teacher quality by more than one standard deviation. A second treatment arm, identical to the loss aversion treatment but implemented in the standard fashion, yields smaller and statistically insignificant results. This suggests it is loss aversion, rather than other features of the design or population sampled, that leads to the stark differences between our findings and past research.

%G eng %0 Journal Article %J Quarterly Journal of Economics %D 2012 %T Hatred and Profits: Under the Hood of the Ku Klux Klan %A Roland Fryer %A Steven Levitt %B Quarterly Journal of Economics %V 127 %P 1883-1925 %G eng %N 4 %0 Journal Article %J Review of Economics and Statistics %D 2012 %T The Plight of Mixed Race Kids %A Roland Fryer %A L. Kahn %A S. Levitt %A J. Spenkuch %B Review of Economics and Statistics %V 94 %P 621-634 %G eng %N 3 %0 Conference Paper %B The Hamilton Project %D 2011 %T The Powers and Pitfalls of Education Incentives %A Roland G Fryer, Jr. %A Bradley M. Allan %B The Hamilton Project %C Washington, D.C. %8 September %G eng %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. %D 2011 %T Are High-Quality Schools Enough to Increase Achievement Among the Poor? Evidence from the Harlem Children’s Zone %A Roland Fryer %A Will Dobbie %X

Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ), an ambitious social experiment, combines community programs with charter schools. We provide the first empirical test of the causal impact of HCZ charters on educational outcomes. Both lottery and instrumental variable identification strategies suggest that the effects of attending an HCZ middle school are enough to close the black-white achievement gap in mathematics. The effects in elementary school are large enough to close the racial achievement gap in both mathematics and ELA. We conclude with evidence that suggests high-quality schools are enough to significantly increase academic achievement among the poor. Community programs appear neither necessary nor sufficient.

%B American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. %V 3 %G eng %N 3 %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Law and Economics %D 2011 %T Measuring the Compactness of Political Districting Plans %A Roland Fryer %A R Holden %B Journal of Law and Economics %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Social Inequality and Educational Disadvantage %D 2011 %T It May Not Take a Village: Increasing Achievement Among the Poor %A Roland Fryer %B Social Inequality and Educational Disadvantage %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Quarterly Journal of Economics %D 2011 %T

Financial Incentives and Student Achievement: Evidence from Randomized Trials

%A Roland Fryer %B Quarterly Journal of Economics %V 126 %P 1755-1798 %G eng %N 4 %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Journal: Applied Economics %D 2010 %T The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities %A Roland Fryer %A M. Greenstone %B American Economic Journal: Applied Economics %V 2 %G eng %N 1 %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Public Economics %D 2010 %T An Empirical Analysis of 'Acting White' %A Roland Fryer %B Journal of Public Economics %V 94 %P 380-396 %G eng %N 5-6 %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Journal: Applied Economics %D 2010 %T An Empirical Analysis of the Gender Gap in Mathematics %A Roland Fryer %A S. Levitt %B American Economic Journal: Applied Economics %V 2 %G eng %N 2 %0 Journal Article %J Handbook of Social Economics %D 2010 %T The Importance of Segregation, Discrimination, Peer Dynamics, and Identity in Explaining Trends in the Racial Achievement Gap %A Roland Fryer %B Handbook of Social Economics %V 1B %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Handbook of Labor Economics %D 2010 %T Racial Inequality in the 21st Century: The Declining Significance of Discrimination %A Roland Fryer %B Handbook of Labor Economics %V 4 %G eng %0 Journal Article %J The Journal of Legal Studies %D 2009 %T Implicit Quotas %A Roland Fryer %B The Journal of Legal Studies %V 38 %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization %D 2008 %T An Economic Analysis of Color-Blind Affirmative Action %A Roland Fryer %A G. Loury %A T. Yuret %B Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization %V 24 %P 319-355 %G eng %N 2 %0 Journal Article %J Contributions in Theoretical Economics %D 2008 %T A Categorical Model of Cognition and Biased Decision-Making %A Roland Fryer %A M. Jackson %B Contributions in Theoretical Economics %V 8 %G eng %N 1 %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Review %D 2008 %T Exploring the Impact of Financial Incentives on Stereotype Threat: Evidence from a Pilot Study %A Roland Fryer %A S. Levitt %A J.A. List %B American Economic Review %V 98 %P 370-375 %G eng %N 2 %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Economic Perspectives %D 2007 %T Guess Who's Been Coming to Dinner? Trends in Interracial Marriage over the 20th Century %A Roland Fryer %X

Additional Figures and Regressions

%B Journal of Economic Perspectives %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Public Economics %D 2007 %T Belief Flipping in a Dynamic Model of Statistical Discrimination %A Roland Fryer %B Journal of Public Economics %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Rationality and Society %D 2007 %T

A Model of Social Interactions and Endogenous Poverty Traps

%A Roland Fryer %B Rationality and Society %V 19 %P 335-366 %G eng %N 3 %0 Journal Article %J Quarterly Journal of Economics %D 2007 %T

A Measure of Segregation Based on Social Interactions

%A Roland Fryer %A F. Echenique %B Quarterly Journal of Economics %V 122 %P 441-485 %G eng %N 2 %0 Journal Article %J American Law and Economic Review %D 2006 %T The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade %A Roland Fryer %A S. Levitt %B American Law and Economic Review %G eng %0 Book Section %B Handbook on Economics of Discrimination %D 2006 %T Discrimination: Experimental Evidence from Psychology and Economics %A Roland Fryer %A L. Anderson %A C. Holt %E William Rogers %B Handbook on Economics of Discrimination %I Edward Elgar Publishing %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Education Next %D 2006 %T Acting White %A Roland Fryer %B Education Next %G eng %0 Journal Article %J American Economic Review %D 2006 %T Is School Segregation Good or Bad? %A Roland Fryer %A F. Echenique %A A. Kaufman %B American Economic Review %G eng %0 Journal Article %J The Journal of Economic Education %D 2005 %T Experience-Based Discrimination: Classroom Games %A Roland Fryer %A J. Goeree %A C. Holt %B The Journal of Economic Education %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Quarterly Journal of Economics %D 2005 %T An Economic Analysis of 'Acting White' %A Roland Fryer %A D. Austen-Smith %B Quarterly Journal of Economics %G eng %0 Journal Article %J The Journal of Economic Perspectives %D 2005 %T Affirmative Action and Its Mythology %A Roland Fryer %A G. Loury %B The Journal of Economic Perspectives %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Journal of Economic Inequality %D 2005 %T Affirmative Action in Winner-Take-All Markets %A Roland Fryer %A Glenn C. Loury %B Journal of Economic Inequality %G eng %0 Journal Article %J The Review of Economics and Statistics %D 2004 %T Understanding The Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School %A Roland Fryer %A S. Levitt %B The Review of Economics and Statistics %G eng %0 Journal Article %J Education Next %D 2004 %T Falling Behind %A Roland Fryer %A S. Levitt %B Education Next %G eng %U http://scholar.harvard.edu/rfryer/files/falling_behind.pdf %0 Journal Article %J Quarterly Journal of Economics %D 2004 %T The Causes and Consequences of Distinctively Black Names %A Roland Fryer %A S. Levitt %B Quarterly Journal of Economics %V 119 %P 767-805 %G eng %N 3