@article {612608,
	title = {Language and cognitive control networks in bilinguals and monolinguals},
	journal = {Neuropsychologia},
	year = {In Press},
	abstract = {Neuroimaging studies have reported overlapping neural circuits for cognitive control when engaging in tasks that involve verbal and nonverbal stimuli in young adult bilinguals. However, no study to date has examined the neural basis of verbal and nonverbal task switching in both monolinguals and bilinguals due to the inherent challenge of testing verbal task switching with monolinguals. Therefore, it is not clear whether the finding for overlapping networks is unique to bilingualism or indicative of general cognitive control. To address this question, the current study compared functional neural activation for young adults who were bilingual speakers of English and French or monolingual English speakers who had limited French learning experience ({\textquotedblleft}functional monolinguals{\textquotedblright}) on verbal and nonverbal task switching. Analyses showed common variance explaining general cognitive control in task switching across verbal and nonverbal domains for both groups, in line with the explanation that task switching involves general cognitive control, as well as unique brain regions recruited by monolinguals and bilinguals. Specifically, beyond the processing common to the tasks, monolinguals also recruited distinct networks for each of verbal and nonverbal switching but bilinguals used a common shared network. Thus, the domain-general aspect of switching is different for monolinguals and bilinguals.},
	author = {Anderson, J. A. and Chung, A. F.-Y. and Bellana, B. and Luk, G. and Bialystok, E.}
}
@article {599926,
	title = {Eligibility for special education in elementary school: The role of diverse language experiences.},
	journal = {Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools},
	year = {In Press},
	abstract = {Purpose: We examined the association between language experience and elementary students{\textquoteright} eligibility for special education in Massachusetts.Method: A secondary descriptive data analysis was conducted on the anonymized demographic data obtained from the Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. Third, fourth, and fifth grade students were categorized into native English speakers, English-proficient bilingual students, and emerging bilinguals. Free-/reduced lunch status was also considered. Proportions of students eligible for Autism, Communication Disorders, and Specific Learning Disabilities (including those with dyslexia) were calculated.Results: A strong association was observed between students{\textquoteright} language backgrounds and whether they were eligible for free-/reduced lunch. Children eligible for free-/reduced lunch were more likely to be eligible for special education. Relative to native English speakers, English proficient bilingual students were less likely to be considered eligible for special education. However, for emerging bilinguals, eligibility was lower in third graders but increased in fourth and fifth graders. This observation was most apparent in the category of Specific Learning Disabilities.Conclusions: Students from diverse language backgrounds and low-income backgrounds were disproportionately represented in special education. More substantial research-practice partnerships are warranted to understand how bilingual experience and socioeconomic status interacts with eligibility for special education conditions in public school settings.},
	author = {Yamasaki, B. and Luk, G.}
}
@inbook {607603,
	title = {Bilingualism and education: Bridging cognitive science research to language learning},
	booktitle = {Cambridge Handbook of Cognition and Education},
	year = {Forthcoming},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	organization = {Cambridge University Press},
	abstract = {Research in psychology has demonstrated positive cognitive and differential neural consequences of bilingualism in children and adults. For educators, these findings may not always be transparent because of the different contexts between research and practice. In this chapter, the authors take a first step\&nbsp;towards creating a bridge between research findings on language learning and bilingualism and the contexts in which learning occurs across the lifespan, in classrooms and beyond. This chapter serves as a starting point in facilitating cross-disciplinary discussions on improving learning support for children and adults of all language backgrounds.},
	author = {Luk, G. and Kroll, J.},
	editor = {Dunlosky, J. and Rawson, K.}
}
@inbook {599931,
	title = {Comparing executive functions in monolinguals and bilinguals: Considerations on participant characteristics and statistical assumptions in current research},
	booktitle = {Studies in Bilingualism. },
	year = {Forthcoming},
	publisher = {John Benjamins},
	organization = {John Benjamins},
	abstract = {Research on bilingualism and executive functions has primarily focused on the presence or absence of an advantage, based on group comparisons between monolinguals and bilinguals. This research rests on two assumptions: first, that participant groups are mutually exclusive, and second, that important statistical practices are upheld. These assumptions, however, are linked to participant-related characteristics and data diagnostic procedures, which are often underreported. Importantly, bilingualism is a dynamic experience, reflecting how individuals interact with their environment through different languages. This interactional experience is essential for grouping participants within studies, and for drawing comparisons across studies. This paper addresses why definitive claims based on between-group investigations of bilingualism and executive functions are insufficient, particularly when research contexts are not considered, and proposes future research directions for the field.},
	author = {Whitford, V. and Luk, G.},
	editor = {I. Sekerina and V. Valian and L. Spradlin}
}
@article {599941,
	title = {Describing bilinguals: A systematic review of labels and descriptors used in the literature between 2005-2015.},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.  },
	year = {2017},
	abstract = {Recent years have seen a surge in research comparing bilinguals to monolinguals, yet synthesizing this literature is complicated by the diversity of language and social backgrounds behind these dichotomous labels. The current study examines the labels and descriptions reported in 186 studies comparing bilinguals and monolinguals published between 2005{\textendash}2015 in order to understand how bilingualism has been operationalized and to describe the degree to which different facets of bilingual experience are reported. Proficiency and usage were the most frequently reported features (77\% and 79\%), followed by language history (67\%) and the language of schooling (60\%). However, less than half of the studies measured proficiency objectively or reported proportional usage, and even less {\textendash} 30\% {\textendash} described the sociolinguistic context from which the sample was drawn. Given the increase in language contact due to globalization, more transparent and comprehensive reporting of participant characteristics is critical to building our understanding of how bilingualism affects experience.},
	url = { https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728917000682},
	author = {Surrain, S. and Luk, G.}
}
@inbook {374531,
	title = {Bilingualism},
	booktitle = {The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Child Development},
	year = {2017},
	pages = {385-391},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	organization = {Cambridge University Press},
	edition = {2nd},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316216491.062},
	author = {Luk, Gigi},
	editor = {B. Hopkins and E. Geangu and S. Linkenauger}
}
@article {374521,
	title = {Executive control in bilinguals: A concise review on fMRI studies.},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.},
	volume = {19},
	year = {2016},
	month = {2016},
	pages = {699-705},
	abstract = {
	The investigation of bilingualism and cognition has been enriched by recent developments in\&nbsp;functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Extending how bilingual experience shapes\&nbsp;cognition, this review examines recent fMRI studies adopting executive control tasks with\&nbsp;minimal or no linguistic demands. Across a range of studies with divergent ages and language\&nbsp;pairs spoken by bilinguals, brain regions supporting executive control significantly overlap with\&nbsp;brain regions recruited for language control (Abutalebi \&amp; Green, this issue). Furthermore,\&nbsp;limited but emerging studies on resting-state networks are addressed, which suggest more\&nbsp;coherent spatially distributed functional connectivity in bilinguals. Given the dynamic nature of\&nbsp;bilingual experience, it is essential to consider both task-related functional networks (externally-driven\&nbsp;engagement), and resting-state networks, such as default mode network (internal control).\&nbsp;Both types of networks are important elements of bilingual language control that relies on\&nbsp;domain-general executive control.

},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000249},
	author = {Christos Pliatsikas and Luk, Gigi}
}
@inbook {374526,
	title = {Home language usage and executive function in bilingual preschoolers.},
	booktitle = {Cognitive Control and Consequences of Multilingualism. },
	year = {2016},
	pages = {351-374},
	publisher = {John Benjamins},
	organization = {John Benjamins},
	abstract = {
	Executive function (EF) is fundamental to successful learning and goal-directed behavior in both adults and children. Bilingual experience has been shown to facilitate EF across the lifespan, likely due to the increased cognitive demand required for managing multiple languages on a daily basis. Building on previous research that primarily compared monolinguals and bilinguals categorically, the present study examined whether variation in non-dominant language usage moderates the developmental trajectory of EF in a sample of 71 heterogeneous Spanish-English bilingual preschoolers. Using a general linear model, we found a significant interaction between the proportions of Spanish use, chronological age and performance on an EF task. Results suggest that daily bilingual usage moderates preschoolers{\textquoteright} development in EF. Bilingualism is a multidimensional experience, and for developing children, daily usage is an important quantifiable indicator of bilingualism when considering EF. Research and educational implications are discussed in light of these findings.

},
	url = {https://benjamins.com/$\#$catalog/books/bpa.2.15leo/details},
	author = {Sibylla Leon Guerrero and Sarah Smith and Luk, Gigi}
}
@inbook {349141,
	title = {Assessing and Understanding the Needs of Dual-Language Learners},
	booktitle = {The Leading Edge of Early Childhood Education: Linking Science To Policy for A New Generation of Pre-K},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {67-90},
	publisher = {Harvard Education Press},
	organization = {Harvard Education Press},
	address = {Cambridge, MA},
	url = {http://hepg.org/hep-home/books/the-leading-edge-of-early-childhood-education},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Joanna A. Christodoulou},
	editor = {Lesaux, N. and Jones, S.}
}
@article {349136,
	title = {Converging diversity to unity: Commentary on The neuroanatomy of bilingualism},
	journal = {Language, Cognition, and Neuroscience},
	volume = {19},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {349-352},
	url = {DOI:10.1080/23273798.2015.1119289},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Christos Pliatsikas}
}
@article {349131,
	title = {Does developmental timing of exposure to child maltreatment predict memory performance in adulthood? Results from a large, population-based sample},
	journal = {Child Abuse \& Neglect},
	year = {2016},
	abstract = {Although maltreatment is a known risk factor for multiple\&nbsp;adverse outcomes across the lifespan, its effects on cognitive\&nbsp;development, especially memory, are poorly understood. Using data from a\&nbsp;large, nationally representative sample of young adults (Add Health), we\&nbsp;examined the effects of physical and sexual abuse on working and short-term\&nbsp;memory in adulthood. We examined the association between exposure\&nbsp;to maltreatment as well as its timing of first onset after adjusting for\&nbsp;covariates. Of our sample, 16.50\% of respondents were exposed to\&nbsp;physical abuse and 4.36 \% to sexual abuse by age 17. An analysis\&nbsp;comparing unexposed respondents to those exposed to physical or sexual\&nbsp;abuse did not yield any significant differences in adult memory\&nbsp;performance. However, two developmental time periods emerged as\&nbsp;important for shaping memory following exposure to sexual abuse, but in\&nbsp;opposite ways. Relative to non-exposed respondents, those exposed to\&nbsp;sexual abuse during early childhood (ages 3-5), had better number recall\&nbsp;and those first exposed during adolescence (ages 14-17) had worse number\&nbsp;recall. However, other variables, including socioeconomic status, played\&nbsp;a larger role (than maltreatment) on working and short-term memory. We\&nbsp;conclude that a simple examination of "exposed" versus "unexposed"\&nbsp;respondents may obscure potentially important within-group differences\&nbsp;that are revealed by examining the effects of age at onset to\&nbsp;maltreatment.},
	url = {doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.10.014},
	author = {Erin C. Dunn and Daniel S. Busso and Miriam R. Raffeld and Charles A. Nelson and Jordan W. Smoller and Alysa E. Doyle and Luk, Gigi}
}
@article {299671,
	title = {Brain network activity in monolingual and bilingual older adults.},
	journal = {Neuropsychologia},
	volume = {66},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {170-181},
	abstract = {Bilingual older adults typically have better performance on tasks of executive control (EC) than do their monolingual peers, but differences in brain activity due to language experience are not well understood. Based on studies showing a relation between the dynamic range of brain network activity and performance on EC tasks, we hypothesized that life-long bilingual older adults would show increased functional connectivity relative to monolinguals in networks related to EC. We assessed intrinsic functional connectivity and modulation of activity in task vs. fixation periods in two brain networks that are active when EC is engaged, the frontoparietal control network (FPC) and the salience network (SLN). We also examined the default mode network (DMN), which influences behavior through reduced activity during tasks. We found stronger intrinsic functional connectivity in the FPC and DMN in bilinguals than in monolinguals. Although there were no group differences in the modulation of activity across tasks and fixation, bilinguals showed stronger correlations than monolinguals between intrinsic connectivity in the FPC and task-related increases of activity in prefrontal and parietal regions. This bilingual difference in network connectivity suggests that language experience begun in childhood and continued throughout adulthood influences brain networks in ways that may provide benefits in later life.},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393214004126},
	author = {C Grady and Luk, G. and Craik, F.I.M and Bialystok, E}
}
@article {299661,
	title = {The effect of lifelong bilingualism on regional grey and white matter volume.},
	journal = {Brain Research},
	volume = {1612},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {128-139},
	abstract = {Lifelong bilingualism is associated with the delayed diagnosis of dementia, suggesting bilingual experience is relevant to brain health in aging. While the effects of bilingualism on cognitive functions across the lifespan are well documented, less is known about the neural substrates underlying differential behaviour. It is clear that bilingualism affects brain regions that mediate language abilities and that these regions are at least partially overlapping with those that exhibit age-related decline. Moreover, the behavioural advantages observed in bilingualism are generally found in executive function performance, suggesting that the frontal lobes may also be sensitive to bilingualism, which exhibit volume reductions with age. The current study investigated structural differences in the brain of lifelong bilingual older adults (n=14, mean age=70.4) compared with older monolinguals (n=14, mean age=70.6). We employed two analytic approaches: 1) we examined global differences in grey and white matter volumes; and, 2) we examined local differences in volume and cortical thickness of specific regions of interest previously implicated in bilingual/monolingual comparisons (temporal pole) or in aging (entorhinal cortex and hippocampus). We expected bilinguals would exhibit greater volume of the frontal lobe and temporal lobe (grey and white matter), given the importance of these regions in executive and language functions, respectively. We further hypothesized that regions in the medial temporal lobe, which demonstrate early changes in aging and exhibit neural pathology in dementia, would be more preserved in the bilingual group. As predicted, bilinguals exhibit greater frontal lobe white matter compared with monolinguals. Moreover, increasing age was related to decreasing temporal pole cortical thickness in the monolingual group, but no such relationship was observed for bilinguals. Finally, Stroop task performance was positively correlated with frontal lobe white matter, emphasizing the importance of preserved white matter in maintaining executive function in aging. These results underscore previous findings implicating an association between bilingualism and preserved frontal and temporal lobe function in aging.},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315001341},
	author = {Olsen, R. K. and Pangelinan, M. M. and Bogulski, C. and Chakravarty, M. M. and Luk, G. and C Grady and Bialystok, E}
}
@article {299666,
	title = {A meta-analysis of functional reading systems in typically developing and struggling readers across different alphabetic languages.},
	journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
	volume = {6},
	year = {2015},
	abstract = {Functional neuroimaging research has identified multiple brain regions supporting reading-related activity in typical and atypical readers across different alphabetic languages. Previous meta-analyses performed on these functional magnetic resonance imaging findings typically report significant between-group contrasts comparing typical readers and readers with reading difficulty or a clinical diagnosis of developmental dyslexia. In order to advance our understanding of cross-linguistic convergence of reading-related brain activations for these reader groups, analyses using activation likelihood estimation were carried out separately for typical and atypical readers who ranged from children to adults. Contrasts were analyzed for tasks involving rhyming or reading of letter or word stimuli presented visually in English, Dutch, Italian, German, French, or Norwegian. Typical readers showed reliable activation in only left lateralized regions, including the inferior frontal area, precentral area and middle temporal gyrus. Atypical readers also showed activation in the left inferior frontal area and precentral region, in addition to significant activations in the right hemisphere, including the superior, medial and inferior frontal regions, lingual gyrus and the inferior occipital area. These results distinguish between typical and atypical reader group activations, showing common and distinct regions of activation when engaged in reading-related activities, extending previous meta-analyses on identifying brain regions relevant to reading to include cross-linguistic analyses for alphabetic scripts. Results support the universality of a signature pattern of brain activation in developmental dyslexia across alphabetic languages.},
	url = {http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00191/abstract},
	author = {Pollack, C. and Luk, G. and Christodoulou, J.}
}
@article {299676,
	title = {Proficiency and control in verbal fluency performance across the lifespan for monolinguals and bilinguals.},
	journal = {Language, Cognition and Neuroscience},
	volume = {30},
	number = {3},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {238-250},
	abstract = {The verbal fluency task is a widely used neuropsychological test of word retrieval efficiency. Both category fluency (e.g., list animals) and letter fluency (e.g., list words that begin with F) place demands on semantic memory and executive control functions. However, letter fluency places greater demands on executive control than on category fluency, making this task well suited to investigating potential bilingual advantages in word retrieval. Here we report analyses on the category and letter fluency for bilinguals and monolinguals at four ages, namely, 7-year-olds, 10-year-olds, young adults and older adults. Three main findings emerged: (1) verbal fluency performance improved from childhood to young adulthood and remained relatively stable in late adulthood; (2) beginning at 10-year-olds, the executive control requirements for letter fluency were less effortful for bilinguals than monolinguals, with a robust bilingual advantage on this task emerging in adulthood and (3) an interaction among factors showed that category fluency performance was influenced by both age and vocabulary knowledge, but letter fluency performance was influenced by bilingual status.},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23273798.2014.918630$\#$.Vb_w-3gqfIY},
	author = {Friesen, D. C. and Luo, L. and Luk, G. and Bialystok, E}
}
@article {299686,
	title = {   Who are the bilinguals (and monolinguals)?},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},
	volume = {18},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {35-36},
	abstract = {In the keynote article, {\textquotedblleft}Bilingualism and Cognition{\textquotedblright}, Valian (2014) has reviewed current research on comparing executive function (EF) in monolingual and bilingual individuals across the lifespan. The conclusion is that there are inconsistent EF advantages from bilingualism and all other cognitive challenging activities primarily because individual differences in these cognitive challenging experiences may collectively attribute to superior EF resulting in inconsistent EF benefit attributable to a single experience. In essence, variability in study participants{\textquoteright} experience and tasks contributes to the inconsistency in the behavioral outcomes observed in monolinguals and bilinguals. Notably, Valian suggests that monolinguals may also engage in other cognitively challenging activities, which have not been accounted for in individual studies, thereby resulting in improved EF similar in magnitude to that related to bilingual experience. Although it was not specified which cognitively challenging activity is more likely to be engaged by monolinguals more than by bilinguals, the question at heart is: is there an EF advantage that can be specifically attributed to bilingual experience? The review addressed in the keynote demonstrates seemingly inconsistent patterns of results. In this commentary, I would like to suggest that, in addition to task measurements, individual bilingual experience is dynamic and multifaceted. Moreover, bilingual experience varies in different communities. Consequently, one potential source of explanation for the inconsistent results in between-group EF performances is the characteristics of the bilinguals (and monolinguals) and their social environments included in these studies.},
	url = {http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online\&aid=9445657\&fulltextType=AC\&fileId=S1366728914000625},
	author = {Luk, G.}
}
@article {299681,
	title = {   Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage.},
	journal = {Journal of Cognitive Psychology},
	volume = {25},
	year = {2013},
	pages = {605-621},
	abstract = {Bilingual experience is dynamic and poses a challenge for researchers to develop instruments that capture its relevant dimensions. The present study examined responses from a questionnaire administered to 110 heterogeneous bilingual young adults. These questions concern participants{\textquoteright} language use, acquisition history and self-reported proficiency. The questionnaire responses and performances on standardized English proficiency measures were analyzed using factor analysis. In order to retain a realistic representation of bilingual experience, the factors were allowed to correlate with each other in the analysis. Two correlating factors were extracted, representing daily bilingual usage and English proficiency. These two factors were also related to self-rated proficiency in English and non-English language. Results were interpreted as supporting the notion that bilingual experience is composed of multiple related dimensions that will need to be considered in assessments of the consequences of bilingualism.},
	url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3780436/},
	author = {Luk, G. \& Bialystok, E.}
}
@inbook {299691,
	title = {   Bialystok, Ellen.},
	booktitle = {The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. },
	year = {2012},
	publisher = {Wiley Online Library},
	organization = {Wiley Online Library},
	abstract = {Ellen Bialystok (1948{\textendash} ) is a Distinguished Research Professor in the Department of Psychology at York University, Toronto, Canada. She has bridged studies of language and cognition through her investigation of bilingualism. Her pioneering interdisciplinary research examines the cognitive consequences of bilingualism both in linguistic and nonlinguistic domains across the lifespan. Most notably, Professor Bialystok has reported a bilingual advantage in tasks assessing executive function, which is a set of skills that are necessary for planning, cognitive flexibility, suppressing distracting information, and selectively attending to relevant information. These research findings have significant implications for education, linguistics, cognitive science, psychology, and neurology.},
	url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0087/abstract;jsessionid=9345B56326DE6D8818C0990FE06B0540.f03t02},
	author = {Luk, G.}
}
@article {36838,
	title = {Cognitive control for language switching in bilinguals: A quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies},
	journal = {Language and Cognitive Processes},
	volume = {27},
	number = {10},
	year = {2012},
	pages = {1479-1488},
	abstract = {In a quantitative meta-analysis, using the activation likelihood estimation method, we examined the neural regions involved in bilingual cognitive control, particularly when engaging in switching between languages. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the bilingual cognitive control model originally proposed as a qualitative analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. After reviewing 128 peer-reviewed articles, 10 neuroimaging studies met our inclusion criteria and in each study, bilinguals switched between languages in response to cues. We isolated regions involved in voluntary language switching, by including reported contrasts between the switching conditions and high-level baseline conditions involving similar tasks but requiring the use of only one language. Eight brain regions showed significant and reliable activation: left inferior frontal gyrus, left middle temporal gyrus, left middle frontal gyrus, right precentral gyrus, right superior temporal gyrus, midline pre-supplementary motor area, and bilateral caudate nuclei. This quantitative result is consistent with bilingual aphasia studies that report switching deficits associated with lesions to the caudate nuclei or prefrontal cortex. It also extends the previously reported qualitative model. We discuss the implications of the findings for accounts of bilingual cognitive control.},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01690965.2011.613209},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Green, David W. and Abutalebi, Jubin and Grady, Cheryl L.}
}
@article {36822,
	title = {Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual adults.},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},
	volume = {15},
	year = {2012},
	pages = {397-401},
	abstract = {English receptive vocabulary scores from 797 monolingual and 808 bilingual participants between the ages of 17 and 89 years old were aggregated from 20 studies to compare standard scores across language groups. The distribution of scores was unimodal for both groups but the mean score was significantly different, with monolinguals obtaining higher standard scores than bilinguals. Consistent with previous research, older adults had higher vocabulary scores than younger adults. The results are discussed in terms of the implications for theoretical conceptions of linguistic processing and clinical diagnosis in bilingual populations.
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and Luk, Gigi}
}
@article {36817,
	title = {Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain},
	journal = {Trends in Cognitive Sciences},
	volume = {16},
	year = {2012},
	pages = {240-250},
	abstract = {Building on earlier evidence showing a beneficial effect of bilingualism on children{\textquoteright}s cognitive development, we review recent studies using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods to examine the effects of bilingualism on cognition in adulthood and explore possible mechanisms for these effects. This research shows that bilingualism has a somewhat muted effect in adulthood but a larger role in older age, protecting against cognitive decline, a concept known as {\textquoteright}cognitive reserve{\textquoteright}. We discuss recent evidence that bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of symptoms of dementia. Cognitive reserve is a crucial research area in the context of an aging population; the possibility that bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve is therefore of growing importance as populations become increasingly diverse.
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and Craik, Fergus I. M. and Luk, Gigi}
}
@inbook {299696,
	title = {   Language representation and cognitive control in bilinguals: An insight for cross-linguistic dyslexic research.},
	booktitle = {Dyslexia across languages: Orthography and the brain-gene-behavior link. },
	year = {2011},
	pages = {281-293},
	publisher = {Brookes Publishing},
	organization = {Brookes Publishing},
	address = {Baltimore, MD},
	author = {Luk, G. \& Bialystok, E.}
}
@inbook {36839,
	title = {Language Representation and Cognitive Control in Bilinguals: Implications for Dyslexia},
	booktitle = {Dyslexia Across Languages: Orthography and the Brain-Gene-Behavior Link},
	year = {2011},
	pages = {281-293},
	publisher = {Brookes Publishing},
	organization = {Brookes Publishing},
	address = {Baltimore},
	url = {http://products.brookespublishing.com/Dyslexia-Across-Languages-P252.aspx},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Bialystok, Ellen},
	editor = {McCardle, Peggy and Miller, Brett and Lee, Jun Ren and Tzeng, Ovid J. L.}
}
@article {36825,
	title = {Distinct neural correlates for two types of inhibition in bilinguals: Response inhibition versus interference suppression.},
	journal = {Brain and Cognition},
	volume = {74},
	year = {2011},
	pages = {347-357},
	abstract = {To examine the effects of bilingualism on cognitive control, we studied monolingual and bilingual young adults performing a flanker task with functional MRI. The trial types of primary interest for this report were incongruent and no-go trials, representing interference suppression and response inhibition, respectively. Response times were similar between groups. Brain data were analyzed using partial least squares (PLS) to identify brain regions where activity covaried across conditions. Monolinguals and bilinguals activated different sets of brain regions for congruent and incongruent trials, but showed activation in the same regions for no-go trials. During the incongruent trials, monolinguals activated the left temporal pole and left superior parietal regions. In contrast, an extensive network including bilateral frontal, temporal and subcortical regions was active in bilinguals during the incongruent trials and in both groups for the no-go trials. Correlations between brain activity and reaction time difference relative to neutral trials revealed that monolinguals and bilinguals showed increased activation in different brain regions to achieve less interference from incongruent flankers. Results indicate that bilingualism selectively affects neural correlates for suppressing interference, but not response inhibition. Moreover, the neural correlates associated with more efficient suppression of interference were different in bilinguals than in monolinguals, suggesting a bilingual-specific network for cognitive control.
},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Anderson, John A. E. and Craik, Fergus I. M. and Grady, Cheryl L. and Bialystok, Ellen}
}
@article {36824,
	title = {Is there a relation between onset age of bilingualism and enhancement of cognitive control?},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},
	volume = {14},
	year = {2011},
	pages = {488-495},
	abstract = {[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 14(4) of Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (see record 2011-22118-013). In the original article, in Figure 2, the caption should have indicated the right group of bars as "Incongruent-Congruent". The corrected figure is present in this erratum.] Young English-speaking monolingual and bilingual adults were examined for English proficiency, language use history, and performance on a flanker task. The bilinguals, who were about twenty years old, were divided into two groups (early bilinguals and late bilinguals) according to whether they became actively bilingual before or after the age of ten years. Early bilinguals and monolinguals demonstrated similar levels of English proficiency, and both groups were more proficient in English than late bilinguals. In contrast, early bilinguals produced the smallest response time cost for incongruent trials (flanker effect) with no difference between monolinguals and late bilinguals. Moreover, across the whole sample of bilinguals, onset age of active bilingualism was negatively correlated with English proficiency and positively correlated with the flanker effect. These results suggest a gradient in which more experience in being actively bilingual is associated with greater advantages in cognitive control and higher language proficiency.
},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and DeSa, Eric and Bialystok, Ellen}
}
@article {36823,
	title = {Lifelong bilingualism maintains white matter integrity in older adults.},
	journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},
	volume = {31},
	year = {2011},
	pages = {16808-16813},
	abstract = {Previous research has shown that bilingual speakers have higher levels of cognitive control than comparable monolinguals, especially at older ages. The present study investigates a possible neural correlate of this behavioral effect. Given that white matter (WM) integrity decreases with age in adulthood, we tested the hypothesis that bilingualism is associated with maintenance of WM in older people. Using diffusion tensor imaging, we found higher WM integrity in older people who were lifelong bilinguals than in monolinguals. This maintained integrity was measured by fractional anisotropy (FA) and was found in the corpus callosum extending to the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi. We also hypothesized that stronger WM connections would be associated with more widely distributed patterns of functional connectivity in bilinguals. We tested this by assessing the resting-state functional connectivity of frontal lobe regions adjacent to WM areas with group differences in FA. Bilinguals showed stronger anterior to posterior functional connectivity compared to monolinguals. These results are the first evidence that maintained WM integrity is related to lifelong naturally occurring experience; the resulting enhanced structural and functional connectivity may provide a neural basis for {\textquotedblleft}brain reserve.{\textquotedblright}
},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Bialystok, Ellen and Craik, Fergus I. M. and Grady, Cheryl L.}
}
@article {36828,
	title = {Effect of language proficiency and executive control on verbal fluency performance in bilinguals.},
	journal = {Cognition},
	volume = {114},
	year = {2010},
	pages = {29-41},
	abstract = {We use a time-course analysis to examine the roles of vocabulary size and executive control in bilinguals{\textquoteright} verbal fluency performance. Two groups of bilinguals and a group of monolingual adults were tested in English with verbal fluency subtests from the Delis{\textendash}Kaplan Executive Function System. The two bilingual groups were equivalent in their self-rated English proficiency but differed in levels of receptive and expressive vocabulary. We hypothesized that the difference between the two bilingual groups in vocabulary and between the monolingual and bilingual groups in executive control would lead to differences in performance on the category and letter fluency tests and dissociate the roles of vocabulary knowledge and executive control in verbal production. Bilinguals and monolinguals performed equivalently in category fluency, but the high-vocabulary bilingual group outperformed both monolinguals and low-vocabulary bilinguals in letter fluency. An analysis of the retrieval time-course functions in letter fluency showed dissociable effects of resources available at the initiation of the trial, considered to reflect vocabulary size, and ability to monitor and retrieve new items using a novel phonemic-based word searching strategy, considered to reflect executive control. The difference in slope of the best-fitting curves reflected enhanced executive control for both bilingual groups compared to monolinguals, whereas the difference in the starting point of the logarithmic functions reflected higher levels of vocabulary for high-vocabulary bilinguals and monolinguals compared to low-vocabulary bilinguals. The results are discussed in terms of the contributions of linguistic resources and executive control to verbal performance.
},
	author = {Luo, Lin and Luk, Gigi and Bialystok, Ellen}
}
@article {36826,
	title = {Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual children.},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},
	volume = {13},
	year = {2010},
	pages = {525-531},
	abstract = {Studies often report that bilingual participants possess a smaller vocabulary in the language of testing than monolinguals, especially in research with children. However, each study is based on a small sample so it is difficult to determine whether the vocabulary difference is due to sampling error. We report the results of an analysis of 1,738 children between 3 and 10 years old and demonstrate a consistent difference in receptive vocabulary between the two groups. Two preliminary analyses suggest that this difference does not change with different language pairs and is largely confined to words relevant to a home context rather than a school context.
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and Luk, Gigi and Peets, Kathleen F. and Yang, Sujin}
}
@article {36833,
	title = {Common and distinct cognitive bases for reading in English--Cantonese bilinguals.},
	journal = {Applied Psycholinguistics},
	volume = {29},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {269-289},
	abstract = {The study explores the relationship between phonological awareness and early reading for bilingual children learning to read in two languages that use different writing systems. Participants were 57 Cantonese--English bilingual 6-year-olds who were learning to read in both languages. The children completed cognitive measures, phonological awareness tasks, and word identification tests in both languages. Once cognitive abilities had been controlled, there was no correlation in word identification ability performance across languages, but the correspondence in phonological awareness measures remained strong. This pattern was confirmed by a principal components analysis and hierarchical regression that demonstrated a different role for each phonological awareness factor in reading performance in each language. The results indicate that phonological awareness depends on a set of cognitive abilities that is applied generally across languages and that early reading depends on a common set of cognitive abilities in conjunction with skills specific to different writing systems.
},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Bialystok, Ellen}
}
@article {36832,
	title = {Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals.},
	journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},
	volume = {34},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {859-873},
	abstract = {[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 35(3) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (see record 2009-05251-016). An incorrect figure was printed due to an error in the production process. The correct version of Figure 1b is provided in the correction.] Ninety-six participants, who were younger (20 years) or older (68 years) adults and either monolingual or bilingual, completed tasks assessing working memory, lexical retrieval, and executive control. Younger participants performed most of the tasks better than older participants, confirming the effect of aging on these processes. The effect of language group was different for each type of task: Monolinguals and bilinguals performed similarly on working memory tasks, monolinguals performed better on lexical retrieval tasks, and bilinguals performed better on executive control tasks, with some evidence for larger language group differences in older participants on the executive control tasks. These results replicate findings from individual studies obtained using only 1 type of task and different participants. The confirmation of this pattern in the same participants is discussed in terms of a suggested explanation of how the need to manage 2 language systems leads to these different outcomes for cognitive and linguistic functions. 
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and Craik, Fergus I. M. and Luk, Gigi}
}
@article {36831,
	title = {Lexical access in bilinguals: Effects of vocabulary size and executive control.},
	journal = {Journal of Neurolinguistics},
	volume = {21},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {522-538},
	abstract = {We report the results of two studies investigating lexical access in bilinguals. In Study 1, monolinguals performed better than bilinguals on tests of naming and letter fluency, but not on category fluency. When vocabulary size was considered, most of the effects disappeared or were reduced. In Study 2, a larger group of bilinguals was studied to compare the effect of vocabulary size, and a more restrictive version of the letter fluency task was used to increase executive processing involvement. In this case, bilinguals with matched vocabulary scores outperformed monolinguals on letter fluency, and bilinguals with lower vocabulary scores performed at the same level as monolinguals. The results are discussed in terms of the contributions of vocabulary size and executive control to performance on lexical retrieval tasks.
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and Craik, Fergus I. M. and Luk, Gigi}
}
@article {36829,
	title = {The source of enhanced cognitive control in bilinguals: Evidence from bimodal bilinguals.},
	journal = {Psychological Science},
	volume = {19},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {1201-1206},
	abstract = {Bilinguals often outperform monolinguals on nonverbal tasks that require resolving conflict from competing alternatives. The regular need to select a target language is argued to enhance executive control. We investigated whether this enhancement stems from a general effect of bilingualism (the representation of two languages) or from a modality constraint that forces language selection. Bimodal bilinguals can, but do not always, sign and speak at the same time. Their two languages involve distinct motor and perceptual systems, leading to weaker demands on language control. We compared the performance of 15 monolinguals, 15 bimodal bilinguals, and 15 unimodal bilinguals on a set of flanker tasks. There were no group differences in accuracy, but unimodal bilinguals were faster than the other groups; bimodal bilinguals did not differ from monolinguals. These results trace the bilingual advantage in cognitive control to the unimodal bilingual{\textquoteright}s experience controlling two languages in the same modality.
},
	author = {Emmorey, Karen and Luk, Gigi and Pyers, Jennie E. and Bialystok, Ellen}
}
@article {36834,
	title = {The university of symbolic representation for reading in Asian and alphabetic languages.},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},
	volume = {10},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {121-129},
	abstract = {Neuroimaging studies of reading have identified unique patterns of activation for individuals reading in alphabetic and Asian languages, suggesting the involvement of different processes in each. The present study investigates the extent to which a cognitive prerequisite for reading, the understanding of the symbolic function of print, is common to children learning to read in these two different systems. Four-year-old children in Hong Kong learning to read in Cantonese and children in Canada learning to read in English are compared for their understanding of this concept by means of the moving word task. Children in both settings performed the same on the task, indicating similar levels of progress in spite of experience with very different writing systems. In addition, the children in Hong Kong benefited from the structural similarity between certain iconic characters and their referents, making these items easier than arbitrary characters. These results point to an important cognitive universal in the development of literacy for ail children that is the foundation for skilled reading that later becomes diverse and specialized.
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and Luk, Gigi}
}
@article {36837,
	title = {Bilingualism, Biliteracy, and Learning to Read: Interactions Among Languages and Writing Systems.},
	journal = {Scientific Studies of Reading},
	volume = {9},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {43-61},
	abstract = {Four groups of children in first grade were compared on early literacy tasks. Children in three of the groups were bilingual, each group representing a different combination of language and writing system, and children in the fourth group were monolingual speakers of English. All the bilingual children used both languages daily and were learning to read in both languages. The children solved decoding and phonological awareness tasks, and the bilinguals completed all tasks in both languages. Initial differences between the groups in factors that contribute to early literacy were controlled in an analysis of covariance, and the results showed a general increment in reading ability for all the bilingual children but a larger advantage for children learning two alphabetic systems. Similarly, bilinguals transferred literacy skills across languages only when both languages were written in the same system. Therefore, the extent of the bilingual facilitation for early reading depends on the relation between the two languages and writing systems.
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and Luk, Gigi and Kwan, Ernest}
}
@article {36836,
	title = {How iconic are Chinese characters?},
	journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},
	volume = {8},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {79-83},
	abstract = {The study explores the notion that some Chinese characters contain pictorial indications of meanings that can be used to help retrieve the referent. Thirty adults with no prior knowledge of Chinese guessed the meanings of twenty Chinese characters by choosing between one of two photographs. Half of the characters were considered to be iconic and the other half was considered to be arbitrary. The proportion of correct guesses for iconic characters was high, but the proportion for arbitrary characters was at chance. These results show a distinction between characters based on the extent to which they have retained aspects of iconicity in reference to their concepts that can direct the reader to their meaning. The results have implications for using pictures to promote the understanding of the orthographic-semantic process in simple Chinese characters.
},
	author = {Luk, Gigi and Bialystok, Ellen}
}
@article {36835,
	title = {Bilingualism, Language Proficiency, and Learning to Read in Two Writing Systems.},
	journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},
	volume = {97},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {580-590},
	abstract = {Two hundred and four 5- and 6-year-olds who were monolingual English-, bilingual English-Chinese-, or Chinese-speaking children beginning to learn English (2nd-language learners) were compared on phonological awareness and word decoding tasks in English and Chinese. Phonological awareness developed in response to language exposure and instruction but, once established, transferred across languages for both bilinguals and 2nd-language learners. In contrast, decoding ability developed separately for each language as a function of proficiency and instruction in that language and did not transfer to the other language. Therefore, there was no overall effect of bilingualism on learning to read: Performance depended on the structure of the language, proficiency in that language, and instructional experiences with that writing system. These results point to the importance of evaluating the features of the languages and instructional context in which children become biliterate.
},
	author = {Bialystok, Ellen and McBride-Chang, Catherine and Luk, Gigi}
}
