High school start times and student achievement: Looking beyond test scores☆
Introduction
School districts in the United States typically set school start times based on financial and logistical constraints related to transportation, athletics, and the labor market dynamics of both parents and students. On average, high and middle school students nationwide start school just after 8:00 a.m., while elementary school students start 10–15 minutes later (USDOE, 2016). However, earlier start times may be harmful to adolescents, whose circadian rhythms differ from those of younger children. Recognizing this, in 2014 the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommended that schools set bell schedules no earlier than 8:30 a.m. to improve the “physical and mental health, safety, and academic achievement” of older students (Owens, Au, Carskadon, Millman, and Wolfson, 2014b, p. 646). In response to this recommendation and new evidence linking later start times to better health and academic outcomes (e.g., Bowers, Moyer, 2017, Marx, Tanner-Smith, Davison, Ufholz, Freeman, Shankar, Newton, Brown, Parpia, Cozma, Hendrikx, 2017), some school districts have implemented later start times (Owens, Drobnich, Baylor, & Lewin, 2014a). In the most notable start time policy change to date since the AAP’s recommendation, California became the first state in the nation to require high schools to start no earlier than 8:30 a.m. (Luna, 2019).1
A growing body of evidence suggests that later start times indeed translate into more sleep for adolescent students (e.g., Bowers and Moyer, 2017), but it remains unclear whether delaying the bell impacts student performance. It is difficult to estimate the causal effects of school start times because the logistical and financial factors determining start times may be correlated with family background or socioeconomic status of students. Schools consider the social needs of the populations they serve (e.g., popular after-school activities or early morning childcare for working parents) and often schedule around morning commutes to avoid congestion on roads or public transportation systems. All else equal, moving a school starting time later in the morning has clear costs in terms of logistics, but measuring the net expected benefit of doing this is complicated by confounding factors.
In this study, we report the effects of a significant policy change in a large school district that provides plausibly exogenous variation in school starting times. In the 2012-13 school year, the Wake County Public School System (“Wake County”), the 15th largest school system in the U.S. (NCES, 2018), shifted start times forty minutes earlier in five large, comprehensive high schools to better coordinate with high schools already starting at 7:25 a.m. The decision to move the bell earlier was motivated by logistical concerns, but such a move could plausibly reduce students’ sleep duration2 and result in decreased school performance. In our setting, the “late” start time was 8:05 a.m., which is 25 minutes earlier than the AAP recommendation. While moving start times 40 minutes earlier is predicted to have harmful consequences for students, it may understate the true impacts of early start times as measured against the 8:30 a.m. standard. We take advantage of this exogenous policy shock to measure the impact of this large start-time shift on both cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes in the short- and medium-term using as our control group those high schools that did not shift start times.
Our results leverage detailed, longitudinal administrative data that tracks multiple cohorts of students over time to estimate the effects of these earlier start times. We identify our main estimates in a difference-in-differences framework. We include a range of robustness tests, including models with student fixed effects, and we explore heterogeneity within the results. To preview our results, we fail to find evidence that variation in start times affected scores on the ACT exam, a college-readiness test required for all students in the district. However, using several measures of student engagement, we do find evidence that absenteeism, tardiness, and dropout rates all increased under earlier start times. Across prior achievement terciles, we find that student engagement effects are significant for those in the bottom two terciles of baseline achievement. Our study suggests not only that earlier start times can increase absenteeism rates and reduce student engagement, but that studies focusing solely on test scores have the potential to underestimate the non-cognitive consequences of early start times.
This study makes several contributions to the literature on start times and adolescent well-being. First, in contrast to much of the existing work that relies on indirect identification, our study is among the few that examines the effects of policy-relevant bell schedule changes.3 Second, our rich dataset allows us to estimate impacts on both cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. Recent work has demonstrated the importance of non-cognitive skill development on the longer-term outcomes of children (e.g., Jackson, 2018, Petek, Pope, 2018).4 Our findings suggest that student engagement and non-cognitive skill formation might be harmed by earlier start times, even when test scores do not fall appreciably. Third, while existing evidence typically reports test-score based achievement, we also estimate start time effects on high school graduation and college enrollment. Fourth, our unique setting in which school begins even earlier allows us to estimate “worst-case scenario” effects, whereby any disruption due to bell schedule changes will exacerbate the negative effects of earlier start times. Finally, our large sample size allows us to explore heterogeneity. With roughly 10,000 students enrolled in each of the eight cohorts, we investigate heterogeneous impacts by demographic characteristics and prior achievement terciles.
This paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 describes the related literature on school start times. Section 3 details start times in Wake County and the policy context around the shift. Section 4 summarizes our data and method. Section 5 describes our results, heterogeneous effects, and robustness checks. Section 6 reports longer-term outcomes. Section 7 concludes.
Section snippets
Background
Despite strong predictions about the benefits of delaying school start times to enable sufficient sleep,5
Start times in Wake County
School start times in Wake County and elsewhere largely depend on transportation logistics (Edwards, 2012, Fügenschuh, 2009, Hafner, Stepanek, Troxel, 2017, Jacob, Rockoff, 2011). Secondary schools—high schools, in particular—typically begin at the earliest tier so that school buses can be parked near the high school and fan out in relative concentric patterns throughout the morning in order to transport younger students. By using a small number of drivers to accomplish this, districts can
Data
We construct our panel using Wake County administrative data spanning the period from 2008-09 to 2018-19.9 We group students into cohorts based on their projected year of graduation (i.e., the class of 2014 would enter 9th grade in 2010-11). We define the school a student attends
Cognitive outcomes
Table 2 presents estimates of Eq. (1) where ACT test scores are the outcome of interest. The estimates in Column (1) regress the ACT combined score on treatment, while Columns (2)-(5) regress subject-level ACT test scores on treatment. The difference-in-differences estimates, β3 and β5 in Eq. (1), are presented at the top of the table. The interaction term “Treated × GradYr2014-2016,” β3, captures the difference between the treatment and control groups when the treatment group was
High school graduation and postsecondary outcomes
Finally, we consider whether declines in non-cognitive outcomes translate into measurable differences in longer-term outcomes, namely on-time graduation and college enrollment. Table 7 reports impacts on high school attainment and a range of college-going outcomes. The cohorts are parallel to Table 3, Column (5), for dropout rates, except that now the class of 2013 is grouped with cohorts experiencing the bell schedule change (“GradYr2013-2016”) to account for the bell schedule change during
Conclusions
We show that in one of the largest school systems in the nation, moving high school start times earlier had no effect on cognitive outcomes, but did adversely impact important measures of student engagement. These findings contribute to a growing literature that suggests non-test score outcomes may yield important insights into students’ experiences at school (Jackson, 2018, Petek, Pope, 2018). Skills such as executive function, grit, and perseverance may not be well-reflected in test scores
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Matthew Lenard: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration. Melinda Sandler Morrill: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration. John Westall: Project administration,
References (66)
Durham school board votes to push high school start times back
News and Observer
(2015)Seattle Public Schools approves later school start times for teens
The Seattle Times
(2015)- et al.
Does early bird catch the worm or a lower GPA? Evidence from a liberal arts college
Applied Economics
(2017) - et al.
The missing manual: Using national student clearinghouse data to track postsecondary outcomes
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
(2015) Solving a school bus scheduling problem with integer programming
European Journal of Operational Research
(2009)- et al.
School start time and sleep in Canadian adolescents
Journal of Sleep Research
(2017) - et al.
Translating the statistical representation of the effects of education interventions into more readily interpretable forms
(2012) - et al.
Later school start times for supporting the education, health, and well-being of high school students
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
(2017) ACT® Frequently asked questions (FAQ) 2017–18
Technical Report
(2017)- USDOE. (2019). Selected Statistics on Enrollment, Teachers, Dropouts, and Graduates in Public School Districts...
Understanding your scores - The ACT test
Gender differences in Morningness-Eveningness preference
Chronobiology International
Improving college performance and retention the easy way: Unpacking the ACT exam
American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
Minimum detectable effects: A simple way to report the statistical power of experimental designs
Evaluation Review
Usual weekly earnings of wage and salary workers second quarter 2017
Technical Report
Later school start time is associated with improved sleep and daytime functioning in adolescents:
Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics
ACT test scores are stagnant in NC
News and Observer
Effects of school start time on students’ sleep duration, daytime sleepiness, and attendance: A meta-analysis
Sleep Health
The effect of english language learner reclassification on student ACT scores, high school graduation, and postsecondary enrollment: Regression discontinuity evidence from Wisconsin
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
A’s from Zzzz’s? The causal effect of school start time on the academic achievement of adolescents
American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
Impact of a modest delay in school start time in Hong Kong school adolescents
Sleep Medicine
Adolescent sleep, school start times, and teen motor vehicle crashes
Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine
The impact of no Child Left Behind on student achievement
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
The influence of sleep quality, sleep duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review
Sleep Medicine Reviews
Course scheduling and academic performance
Economics of Education Review
Early to rise? The effect of daily start times on academic performance
Economics of Education Review
Snooze or lose: High school start times and academic achievement
Economics of Education Review
Later school start times in the U.S.: An economic analysis
The interpretation of dummy variables in semilogarithmic equations
The American Economic Review
The impact of school daily schedule on adolescent sleep
Pediatrics
Rise and shine: The effect of school start times on academic performance from childhood through puberty
Journal of Human Resources
When the bell tolls: The effects of school starting times on academic achievement
Education Finance and Policy
What do test scores miss? The importance of teacher effects on non–test score outcomes
Journal of Political Economy
Cited by (14)
Are children spending too much time on enrichment activities?
2024, Economics of Education ReviewEffects of start times on academic performance: Will metacognitive learning strategy or flipped classroom approaches help sleepy young university students?
2023, International Journal of Management EducationSchool start times and academic achievement - A systematic review on grades and test scores
2022, Sleep Medicine ReviewsCitation Excerpt :Course grades and standardised scores most likely reflect different aspects of students’ learning and knowledge and could thus be differentially sensitive to SST changes. However, when grouping studies based on outcome measure, there was no tendency or differential results on either 1) objective test scores (two positive [54,65], three null findings [53,55,56], and four mixed results [51,57,58,63]), 2) objective grades (two positive [45,59], four null findings [46,52,56,61] and two mixed results [58,60]), 3) or self-reported grades (two positive [50,66], three null findings [48,49,62], and one each for mixed [51] and negative [64]). To judge the evidence quality of the included studies, we performed a risk of bias assessment (Fig. 3).
Early Birds in Elementary School? School Start Times and Outcomes for Younger Students
2023, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
- ☆
Acknowledgements: We thank the Wake County Public School System for its partnership, especially Brad McMillen, Cathy Moore, Colleen Paeplow, Sonya Stephens, and members of the district’s communications, student assignment, and transportation offices. Co-author Lenard is a former member of the district’s Data, Research and Accountability department. We thank Maria Fitzpatrick, Michelle Marcus, Sabrina Wulff Pabilonia, and seminar participants at the Southern Economic Association Annual Meeting for helpful comments and discussions. All remaining errors are our own. This paper was previously circulated under the working title: “School Start Times and Student Achievement: Evidence from High Schools.”